TOGETHER IN EDUCATION: EDUCATIONAL PEDAGOGY.

       PEDAGOGY         

  Module 1: The historical perspective on the role of teacher education

Questions

§  Who is a teacher educator?

§  How does a teacher educator differ from an ordinary teacher?

§  What is teacher training/education?

§  Why should teachers be trained/educated?

Who are agents of change?

Agents of change are:

·         Representatives in the change process

·         Means of change

·         Driving force for change

·         Instruments for change

·         Vehicles for bringing change

What change?

·         People live today expect better life tomorrow

·         Teachers are there to bring better life

·         Teacher educators develop, mould, produce the teachers

·         We develop teachers who can meet this goal and challenge

Current situation

In Tanzania:

·         Ignorance, illiteracy, myopia

·         Poverty, joblessness, poor working tools

·         Disease, poor health services

·         Social disharmony, conflicts, intolerance

·         Environmental degradation, weather problems, etc.

Education has to improve the situation by:

·         Developing a knowledgeable community on:

      Literacy (ability to learn)

      Alternatives available in life

      Entrepreneurship

      How to enhance our health

      Social justice

      Sustainability of our environment

Current situation

Globally:

·         Knowledge explosion

·         Fast development of technology

·         Globalization

·         Economic and social inequalities

·         Global warming.

Our education has to:

·         Develop learners who can:

      Learn fast according to the changes

      Manage, organise, create knowledge

      Participate in technological development

      Enhance equality

      Care for sustainable environment and life

      Cope with globalization

What kind of teachers?

·         Knowledgeable in their subjects

·         Competent in pedagogy

·         Non-expiry with syllabuses

·         Dynamic in both theory and practice

·         Morally mature & just

·         Reflective professionals

Teacher educators?

·         Professional teachers

·         Critical assessors of existing programs

·         Designer of T.Ed programs

      Pre-service programs

      In-service  programs

·         Good implementers

·         Evaluator of teacher qualifications

Roles of teacher educators:

      Agents of change

      Design and implement good programmers

      Understand professional qualities

      Enhance the professionalization process

      Pedagogical activities to achieve the goals

Changing needs and responsive development in teacher education

What is to be responsive?

·         Responsive originates from the word respond

·         To respond is to answer or react to something

·         To be responsive is to react quickly and in a positive way

·         Responsive teacher education is one that reacts quickly and in a positive way

·         Responsive teacher education is the one that reacts quickly as things change

·         Being non responsive means becoming out of date

Teacher education Vs Education systems

·         Teachers are prepared to fit in the education system

·         They have to develop as education system develops

·         The history of teacher education in East Africa resembles that of the respective education system

Histories of teacher education

·         Before colonialism, teaching was in families and clans. Teachers were elders

·         Missionaries perceived colonialists

      They taught basis literacy to their believers

      Bush schools developed

      There were no teacher colleges

During colonialism

·         Schools emerged to develop laborers and low level leaders

·         Mission schools remained

·         Basic education for laborers and further education for prospective leaders

·         Formal teacher education emerged (e.g, Mpwapwa TTC gvt, others-missions)

·         It was in grades to fit the system

After independence

·         Some changes were made in respective education systems:

_        Different regimes made different changes;

§  Some internal development

§  Some influence of global changes

§  Some influence of foreign powers

·         Teacher education was developed to fit the respective changes

Role of Teacher education in national development

·         Education is a key to any development

·         Without proper education, no proper development

o   Stagnation to development is attributed to improper education

·         That is why they had ESR in Tanzania and now have Dakar declaration of UNESCO

In ESR, education is for liberation:

·         Make individuals and communities self-reliant

·         Liberate people’s minds from oppression

·         Empower people to take care of their destiny

·         Individuals first and then communities and finally the nation and the world

·         Education that is holistic, not partial

In Dakar declaration,

·         Education declared the right to every citizen

·         Not only being in school but quality education

·         To know, to do, to be and to live with others

·         But quality is seen differently by different people

·         Need to conceptualize quality in proper way

Quality in DeSeSo

·         Development and selection of key competences.

·         With value to all individuals and the societies

·         The key competences are:

         Use tools interactively e.g language and technology)

         Interact in heterogeneous groups

         Act automatically

Where should teacher education be?

Questions for reflection

·          Should teacher education follow or precede national development?

·          If education drives development, who drives education?

·          If teachers are professionals, what should be the qualities of their educators?

Module 2: The context of professional development within teacher education

1.  Conceptualizing the meaning of professional development

Professional development of teacher is defined as activities that develop an individual’s skills, knowledge, expertise and other characteristics as a teacher.

The definition recognizes that development can be provided in many ways, ranging from the formal to the informal. It can be made available through external expertise in the form of courses, coaching, mentoring, professional meetings, workshops or formal qualification programmes, through collaboration between schools or teachers across schools (e.g. observational visits to other schools or teacher networks) or within the schools in which teachers work. In this last case, development can be provided through coaching/mentoring, collaborative planning and teaching, and the sharing of good practices. It also includes informal experiences such as reading professional publications, watching television documentaries related to an academic discipline, etc.

Therefore, any ongoing learning opportunities that are available to teachers through their education system or school can be termed as professional development.

Note:

Not all professional development programs can be effective. Effective professional development is defined as professional development that produces changes in teachers’ instruction practice which can be linked to improvements in student achievement (Blazer, 2005)

The primary purpose of professional development is to prepare and support teachers by giving them knowledge and skills they need to help all students achieve high standards of learning and development (U.S department of education, 1996). The conception of professional development is therefore broader than career development which is defined as the growth that occurs as the teacher moves through the professional career cycle. It is also broader than staff development which is the provision of organized in-service programs designed to foster the growth of teachers. When looking at professional development, one must examine the content of experiences, the process by which the professional development will occur and the contexts in which it will take place. This perspective is in a way new to teaching

In the past, professional development available to teachers was staff development or in service training usually consisting of workshops of short term courses that would offer teachers new information on a particular aspect of their work or on the latest instructional practices.

Participants listed passively to outside experts and were then encouraged to apply strategies in their own classrooms (Blazer, 2005). Teachers were proved with few, if any opportunities for following-up activities and rarely applied their new knowledge or skills when they returned to their classrooms (Joyce and showers, 2002)

Today, challenging student performance standards paired with rigorous sustainability policies call for significant changes in professional development practices. These changes cannot be accomplished by sending teachers to the short term professional development efforts of the past. Professional development must be more than training in new knowledge or instructional procedures. It must enable teachers to move to the next level of expense and enhance their ability to make changes that will result in increased student performance (French, 1997). This professional growth will only occur if teachers are provided with expanded learning opportunities, ample peer support, and extended time to practice, reflect, critique, and the practice again (Cohen and Hill, 1998)

Therefore, in recent years, the professional development of teachers has been considered as a long-term process that includes regular opportunities and experiences planned systematically to promote growth and development in the profession. This shift has been so dramatic that many have referred to it as new image of teacher learning, a new mode of teacher education, a revolution in education and even a new paradigm of professional development

Activity:

1)      Give a brief account on the following terms, professional development, career development, teacher development, staff development, in service training (INSET)

2)      Reflect on the current educational program in Tanzania, who is responsible for designing and conducting professional programs, is there any policy that guides its implementation? What does this policy say?

3)      Analyze the professional development programs designed by the government and non government organizations in Tanzania. What is the stance f these programs in the light of the new paradigm of teacher learning

2.  Rationale for professional development

Aside from the individual satisfaction of financial gain that teachers may obtain as a result of participating in professional development opportunities, the process of professional development opportunities, the process of professional development has a significant positive impact on teachers’ beliefs and practices, students’ learning and on the implementation of the educational reforms

2.1 Implementation of educational reforms

The current emphasis on the professional development comes not from knowledge of deficiencies but instead from growing recognition of education as a dynamic professional field (Gus key, 2000). Educational researches are constantly discovering new knowledge about the teaching and learning process. As the professional knowledge base expands, new types of expertise are required of educators at all levels. And like professionals in other fields, educators must keep abreast of this emerging knowledge base and prepared to use it constantly refine their conceptual and craft skills

Education being a dynamic endeavor, change is inevitable. Teachers are constantly learning, growing and adapting to new techniques, new content standards and new curriculums. Teachers’ professional development is an essential component of comprehensive school change/reform.

Teachers are the center of educational reform because they must make every effort to ensure that their students meet the high standards that districts and states have adopted (Garetet l, 2001). They have most direct contact with students and considerable control over what is taught and learning climate. (King and Newnann, 2000)

2.2Students’ learning

The American federation of teachers has stated that, the nation cannot adopt rigorous stands, set forth a visionary scenario, compile the best research about how students learn, change text books and assessment, promote teaching strategies that have been successful with wide range of students and change all the other elements involved in systematic reform but without professional development, school reform and improved achievement for all students will not happen.

Evidence continue to accumulate showing that student performance is influenced by teachers’ high quality professional development and that the effects of increased teacher knowledge are observed across subject matter fields (Guskey, 2000 and showers, 2002). The American federation of teachers (2002) has concluded that high quality professional development is essential to the nation’s goal of high standards of learning for every child and that the most important investment school districts can make is to ensure the teachers continue to learn. The national commission on teaching and America’s future (1996) reported that, investments in teachers knowledge and skills result in greater increase in student achievements than other uses of the education dollar. The time teachers spend with other knowledgeable educators engaging in teaching and learning  is just as important  to students’ learning as the time teachers spend teaching students

3.3 Teachers’ beliefs and practices

Successful professional development experiences have a noticeable impact on teacher’s work both in and out of the classroom especially considering that a significant number of teachers throughout the world are under prepared for their professional (Raimer 2002). Evidence show that, professional development has an impact on teachers’ beliefs and behavior. Evidence also indicate that, the relationship between teachers’ beliefs and their practice is not straight forward or simple (Reimer’s 2003). On contrary, it is dialectic, moving back and forth between change in beliefs and change in classroom practice (ibid)

3.  Forms/models of professional development

1.0 meaning of professional development model

Professional development models may be defined as a plan that guides the process of designing professional development for teachers (Joyce and Weil, 1972). The models can be seen as a design for learning which embodies a set of assumptions about where knowledge about teaching practice comes from and how teachers’ acquire or extend their knowledge (Ingvarson, 1987)

Major models include:  individually guided staff development, observation/assessment, involvement in a development/improvement process, training and inquiry model (sparks and Horsley, 1989). These models present teachers with a wide variety of options and opportunities to enhance their professional skills and knowledge (Guskey, 2000)

Supplement:

Sparks and Loucks-Horsley (1990), in their extensive review of the research, suggest that five types of staff development models are used for teachers:

·         INDIVIDUALLY GUIDED STAFF DEVELOPMENT. Individuals identify, plan and pursue activities they believe will support their own learning.

·         OBSERVATION/ASSESSMENT. Teachers are observed directly and given objective data and feedback about their classroom performance.

·         INVOLVEMENT IN A DEVELOPMENT/IMPROVEMENT PROCESS. Teachers develop curriculum, design programs, or become involved in school improvement processes to solvegeneral or specific problems.

·         TRAINING. Teachers engage in individual or group instruction in which they acquireknowledge or skills.

·         INQUIRY. Teachers identify and collect data in an area of interest, analyze and interpret thedata, and apply their findings to their own practice.

Of these five models, the most widely used and researched is TRAINING.

1.1Individually guided-staff development model(“I have come to feel that the only learning which significantly influences behavior is self-discovered, self-appropriated learning by Rodgers)

Individually-guided definition

·           A process through which teachers plan for and pursue activities they believe will promote their own learning.

·           Designed by the teacher.

·           Teacher defined goals and activities

The key characteristic of this model is that, learning is designed by teachers. The teacher determines his/her own goals and select activities that will result in the achievement of those goals. Teachers read professional publications, have discussion with colleagues and experiment with new instructional strategies on their own. This may occur, with or without the existence of formal professional development

Individually-guided - Underlying Assumptions

o  Individuals can judge their own needs and that they are capable of self-direction and self-initiated learning.

o  Adults learn most efficiently when they initiate and plan their learning rather than spend their time in irrelevant activities of little interest.

o  Individuals will be motivated when they select their own leaning goals based on their personal of their needs.

1.2 Observation/assessment model (“Feedback is the breakfast of champions” by Blanchard & Johnson- The One Minute Manager)

The model proposed that, one of the best way to learn is by observing others or by being by being observed and receiving specific feedback from the observation (Guskey, 2000). Analysis gand reflecting on the information from observation assessment can be a valuable means of professional development. Coaching, mentoring and clinical supervision can be good examples of this model.

Observation/Ass

essment - Underlying Assumptions

o  Observation and assessment of classroom teachers can benefit both parties – the observer and the observed

o  When teachers see positive results from their efforts to change they are more apt to engage in improvement

o  Reflection and analysis are central means of professional growth”.  Loucks-Horsley (1987, p. 61)

o  Reflection by an individual on his or her own practice can be enhanced by another’s observation.

Because this model may involve multiple observations and conferences spread over time, it can help teachers to see that change is possible. As teachers apply new strategies, they can see changes both in their own and their students’ behaviour.  In some instances, measurable improvements in students’ learning will also be observed.

Coaching is one of the examples where teachers visit one another’s classroom, gather objective data about student performance or teacher behaviour and give feedback (Joyce and Showers, 2002)

1.3 Involvement in a development/improvement process model

o  Sometimes teachers are asked to:

n  Develop or adapt curriculum

n  Design programs

n  Engage in a systematic school improvement processes

o  Any or all of these with the focus of improving classroom instruction and/or curriculum.

o  Successful completion requires the teacher to gain additional knowledge to complete the task.

o  This model focuses on the combination of learning that result from the involvement of teacher in the process.

Involvement in a Development/Improvement Process - Underlying Assumptions

o  People working closest to the job best understand what is required to improve their performance. Given opportunities, teachers can effectively bring their unique perspectives to the tasks of improving teaching in their schools.

o  Adults learn more easily when they have a need to know or a problem to solve (Knowles, 1980).

o  Teachers acquire important knowledge or skills through their involvement in school improvement or curriculum development processes.

1.4 Training model ( … the purpose of providing training in any practice is not simply to generate the external visible teaching “moves” that bring that practice to bear in the instructional setting but to generate the conditions that enable the practice to be selected and used appropriately and integratively …a major, perhaps the major, dimension of teaching skill is cognitive in nature. Showers, Joyce, and Bennett (1987, p. 85-86) )

The training model involves presenter or team of presenters that shares its ideas and expertise through a variety of group-based activities. The model formats include large group presentations and discussions, workshops, seminars, demonstrations, role playing and microteaching.

Training session is conducted with a clear set of objectives or learner outcomes that may include

n  Awareness or knowledge

n  Skill development

Training - Underlying Assumptions

o  The model assumes that teachers can change their behaviors and learn to replicate behaviors in the classroom that were not previously in their repertoire. Teachers are wonderful learners who can master about any kind of teaching strategy or implement almost any technique as long as adequate training is provided.

o  There are behaviors and techniques that are worthy of replication by teachers in the classroom

1.5 Joyce and Showers model of professional development of teachers

Joyce and Shower (2002) describe the professional development for effective transfer of knowledge, skills to teachers as well as effective means for change in attitude, beliefs and teachers’ practices in schools. Joyce and Shower (2002) present teachers as teachers affect students by what they teach and the kinds of places (social climate) they are.

The model has five major elements that are theory, demonstration, practice and coaching as presented in the figure below

THEORY DEMONSTRATION FEEDBACK   Large measurable impact on classroom practice No measurable impact on classroom practice PRACTICE COACHINNG

According to the figure, it is evident that even though teachers are very enthusiastic about the training they receive, they rarely apply it in sustained way that can lead to long-term change in practice. The feedback (teacher receives feedback on their practice so that they can see how well the new approach is working) and coaching (the coach helps the teacher discuss the teaching in a supportive environment with other teachers and consider how it might be improved) are very important components for an effective professional development program.

5.6 Inquiry model (“the most effective avenue for professional development is cooperative study by teachers themselves into a problem and issues arising from their attempts to make practice consistent with their educational values…[The approach] aims to give greater control over what is to count as valid educational knowledge to teachers.”(Ingvarson, 1987, p. 15.17)

Teachers formulate questions about their own practice and pursue answers to those questions. Inquiry involves the identification of a problem, data collection (from the research literature and classroom data), data analysis, and changes in practice followed by the collection of additional data. The inquiry can be done individually or in small groups. This model is built on the belief that the mark of a professional teacher is the ability to take "reflective action."

o  Teacher inquiry may be a solitary activity, be done in small groups, or be conducted by school faculty.

o  May be formal or informal

o  May occur in the classroom, at a teacher center, or results from a university class

o  Research is an important activity in which teachers should be engaged, although they rarely participate in it other than as “subjects.”

Inquiry - Underlying Assumptions

o  Teachers are intelligent, inquiring individuals with legitimate expertise and important experience.

o  Teachers are inclined to search for data to answer pressing questions and to reflect on the data to formulate solutions.

o  Teachers will develop new understanding as they formulate their questions and collect their own data to answer them. (Loucks-Horsley et al., 1987)

4.  Evaluation of professional development

2.0 Meaning of evaluation of professional development

Evaluation of professional development program is an important aspect to determine its quality and to gain direction in improves it (Guskey, 2000). According to Guskey, good evaluations provide information that sound, meaningful and sufficiently reliable to use in making thoughtful and responsible decisions about professional development and effects.

Therefore, it is within the objectives of this study to design the model that will be used to assess the impact of the professional development programs prepared to enable teachers use the ICM lessons in their classrooms for the aim of improving students’ achievements

The main question here is that, how does one conduct good evaluations of professional development program for teachers? To answer this question, models of professional development including Tyler’s model, Stufflebeam’s model and Guskey evaluation models have been surveyed. Based on these models, some important aspects will be used to form some models that will guide this study. The evaluation models can be used to help in defining parameters of an evaluation. What concepts to study and the processes or methods need to extract critical data.

2.1Tyler’s evaluation model

Tyler in 1947, believed that the essential first step in any evaluation  is the classification  of the program or activity’s objectives. Once clear objectives are specified, evaluation can the focus on the extent to which those goals were achieved. If discrepancies are discovered between the objectives and the outcomes, then modifications in the program can be made to enhance its effectiveness. The focus f this model is on the objectives and outcomes and thus the process of implementation needs another model.

2.2 Stufflebeam’s evaluation model

This model focuses on decision making processes rather than on centering on objective-product model of the Tyler. The model is based on the four different kinds of evaluation information that one needs to make decisions during the evaluation process. They include; context, input, process and product (CIPP) evaluation information

Context Evaluation helps decision makers to assess needs, problems, assets and opportunities while defining goals and actions. Planning decisions and context information are two key concepts addressed during context evaluations (Randall, 1969). Decision makers need to consider the selection of problem components and set priorities in terms of importance. They also need to determine the strategy or strategies that will be used to carry out or overcome these problem components. The main methods for data collection during context evaluations are research surveys, literature reviews, and expert opinions.

Input Evaluation helps decision makers to assess plans for their feasibility and cost‐effectiveness for achieving planning objectives. It entails structuring decisions and action plans that depend on design information. This stage of evaluation generally sees decision makers setting up and confirming plans and budgets before actions are undertaken. This may include comparing competing plans, funding proposals, allocating resources, scheduling work and assigning human resources.

Process Evaluation sees decision makers assess actions and implementations of plans that are being achieved. At this stage of an evaluation, the design has been structured and put on trial.

Evidence is collected to determine the effectiveness of the objectives, and to help designers and evaluators to gauge the success of the process. Main methods for data collection are baseline observations, test results that can be compared against a time frame sequence, and comparing stated objectives with observed effects (Randall, 1969).

Product Evaluation aids in identifying and assessing outcomes, those intended and unintended, short‐term and long‐term. It also provides a platform for clients to stay focused on their goals and to gauge the effort’s success in meeting targeted needs. The product information gathered from testing the completed designs contain evidence about the effectiveness in attaining short and long range goals, and can also be used to compare with that of another program or design (Randall 969).

The CIPP model helped educators recognize the value and importance of sound evidence in decision making process. It also broadens educators’ perspectives on evaluation and brought clarity to ongoing evaluation procedures.

2.3 Guskey evaluation models

Guskey (2000) proposed a five level model of evaluation for any professional program for teachers.

The first level of evaluation addresses teacher’s reactions to the experience. It measures, teachers initial satisfaction with the in-service experience but not its quality or worth. The information gathered at this level can help improve the design and delivery of professional programs.

The second level of evaluation focuses on measuring the knowledge, skills and attitudes that are the teachers developed throughout the in-service experience. Analysis of information from this measurement provides a basis for improving the content, format, and organization of the in-service program or activity

The third level of evaluation focuses on gathering information about school support to encourage and facilitate the in-service participants with the implementation of the innovation initiatives. This information is used to document and improve organizational support and also to inform further change initiatives.

The fourth level evaluation, concentrates on teachers use of the new knowledge and skills (gained through the in-service program) in classroom practices. Measurement of use is taken after sufficient time has passed to allow teachers to adapt the new ideas and practices into their school settings. Analysis of this information provides evidence of the current level of use and can help to restructure future activities to facilitate better and more consistent implementation

The last level of evaluation focuses on students outcomes. Measurement of students’ learning typically include cognitive indicators of student performance and achievement but also effective indicators (attitudes and dispositions) and psychomotor indicators (skills and behaviours)

Activities

1.      Describe the professional development models commonly used in our education system for teachers’ in-service programs

2.      Discuss with specific examples how the professional development programs for teachers have been conducted in Tanzania.

3.      Give other models apart from these described …………………………………

Module 3: The concept of profession and professionalization

Module 4: Orientations/paradigm to teacher development

Orientation is cluster of ideas about the goals of the teacher preparation and the means of achieving those goals.

Any orientation is grounded or based on three things:

1.      Psychological assumption

2.      Physiological assumption

3.      Political assumption

When we have similar goals/ideas about teacher preparation, and then form orientation to teacher education.

Any orientation changes overtime, any orientation is not static but it is dynamic

We have three reasons for orientation:

1.      Social pressure

2.      Economic development

3.      Political preferences

Roles of orientation to teacher education

There are two roles any orientation should play:

1.      Any orientation should highlight different issues that must be considered in the learning to teach (teacher preparation)

2.      Should reveal goals and expected results of teacher education

There are 8 orientations to teacher education:

1.      Personal characteristics of teacher orientation

2.      Traditional craft orientation

3.      Behavioral orientation

4.      Academic rationalism orientation

5.      Discovering learning orientation

6.      Personalistic orientation

7.      Inquiry orientation

8.      Technological orientation

Question:

Why do we have many orientations/paradigms to teacher education?

Answer (reasons):

                                i.            There are many goals to achieve than one orientation can achieve at one time

                              ii.            There are many choices to make in the society

                            iii.            There is rapid scientific and technological development

                                                                                      

1.    Personal characteristics of teacher orientation

As the name suggests, it targets on the teacher attributes.

It is the oldest orientation since the teaching became the professional.

2.    Traditional craft orientation

3.    Behavioral orientation

This orientation is rooted on the behavioral psychology founded by B.F.Skinner. This psychology introduced and advocated teaching machines and programmed instructions.

Underlying aim of behavioral intention is behavior control and behavior modification

Teaching machines- are all means of teaching aids/ teaching media

Programmed instruction- structuring of the lesson

In this orientation, teaching is a method of controlling students’ behavior and conditioning of learning process through stimulus-response relationship.

Example,

Teaching aid-response

Response-change of learner’s behaviour

In this orientation, objectives must be stated in behavioral terms. That is:

        i.            Overt

      ii.            Measurable

    iii.            Observable actions of learners

Covert, immeasurable and non-behavioral behaviors are unpredicted because the performance implied is in interior state

Action verbs that may be used includes: draw, list down, define, examine, determine, assess, label, etc

Behavioralist argumentation on teaching and learning (3 arguments)

       i.            Learning is a permanent change in learners’ behaviour

     ii.            Learning is determined by observation of some aspects of learner’s performances

    iii.            Good teaching is a result of attainment of intended competences as performed by learner

Planning of teaching should start with identification of behavioral observation

Three important things should be considered in this orientation

        i.            Objectivity-observable, overt and measurable behaviours

      ii.            Precision-attainment of intended objectives

    iii.            Economy- facing learning costs through the use of teaching aids and improvisation technique

Concluding to this orientation

        i.            This orientation cherishes automation and mechanistic thinking

      ii.            Relationship between teacher and students base on processing and production of output

    iii.            Learners are seen as objects of society

    iv.            Decision making, critical thinking and creative reflection are ignored in this orientation

      v.            Teaching emphasizes rote learning or recalling/ cramming learning

Reflection on Tanzania Educational system

In some aspects, Tanzania Education system seems to follow this orientation since:

      Passing of examination (e.g. FTSEE, CSEE, ACSEE, UEs) is seen as the only criteria of school/college/university achievements

      Teachers’ lesson objectives are insisted to be achievable and measurable

      Coverage of syllabus before final examination is a great point of emphasis

      School inspectors inspect teachers’ use of teaching aids

      Curriculum developers insist students’ demonstration of competences and skills in classroom

4.    Academic rationalism orientation

This focuses on academic.

In this orientation, teaching is about transmission of knowledge and developing understandings

This orientation emphasizes teachers’ roles:

        i.            As one intellectual leaders

      ii.            Scholar

    iii.            Subject matter specialists/experts

Eisner and Valence (1974)

Systematized this orientation basing on knowledge of subject matter. Knowledge of subject matter is a way of disseminating facts and skills through it thoughts/ideas acquires precisions, acquire power and generality

Two types of knowledge with regard to this orientation;

        i.            Funded knowledge

      It is founded in books, journals, computers, researches, articles and other scientific sources

      ii.            Unfunded knowledge

      Indigenous

      Not found in books but found in real life environment

      Not yet transformed

Academic rationalism orientation favors funded knowledge. It is bookish

They advocate development of mind through theorization and practical experience while rejecting vocational education

They said, vocational education is meaningless with two reasons:

                    i.            Vocational education lacks intellectual content but their content bases on procedural content

                  ii.            Vocational training is thoughtless

Conclusion and remarks:

Methods of teaching in this orientation is banking rather than inquiring learning

Knowledge comes from books so no opportunity to think more

Learners are prepared to cope and fit in the society but are not allowed to ask questions

The orientation sees education and society as unchanging and unproblematic

Aspects which show that we implement this orientation:

      Preparation of teachers to be subjects specialists

      Our teacher training colleges, are organised into academic disciplines (nature of subjects)

      T.I.E assumes the role of rationalists by having different subject experts therefore teachers are prepared to become academic rationalists

5.    Discovering learning orientation

Began between 1950s and 1970s under Jerome Brunner, an American psychologist

This orientation has different names sometimes called discovering method, discovering names, inductive method

Jerome Brunner systemized the work done by john Dew, Maria Montessori, Benjamin Bloom, Hilda Taba.

This orientation is based on scientific discovering hence if there is a scientific discovering, there were a problem

Teachers are required to structure the learning environment so that a child could be ready to new discovery

The orientation was featured by the subject project based on discovering learning.

The project include mathematics project, physics, biology, and social science projects

Therefore, its implementation is based on subject projects.

Examples of projects under discovering orientation:

                   I.            East Africa and Entebbe Mathematics

                II.            School mathematics project for East Africa

             III.            African primary science projects

             IV.            Science education programme for Africa

All the projects were academic rationalistic in nature

This orientation is based on academic because it bases on academic disciplines. However, it departed from academic rationalism orientation as learners were left to find out the problems in problematic situations.

Those answers were to be founded in unfunded knowledge and real life situations

Weakness of the projects

1.      The projects were highly structured around disciplines of knowledge, making knowledge rigid to acquire

2.      The projects considered behavioural terms when stating objectives leaving aside other domains

3.      The projects were purely scientific leaving social methods that applied deductive thinking

4.      The projects based on top down approaches (means, issues regarding teaching- MOEVT-top while teachers and students bottom/down

5.      Teachers and students were passive as they consume materials they do not produce

NB: all the above five orientations are regarded as traditional orientations because of the following reasons:

       I.            They view teachers as ready made

    II.            They view teacher education is unchanged

 III.            They view teacher education is unproblematic contrary to what exists in real life

Alternative orientation

1.    Personalistic orientation

It is about a personal (a teacher)

In this orientation, teachers are active learners. A central focus of this orientation is on teachers personal growth and psychological maturity

Teachers should be helped to develop growth and teacher psychological maturity

This orientation is rooted on developmental humanistic and perceptual psychology

Developmental psychology- we want learners to develop

Humanistic- we use ideas from humanistic psychology

Perceptual- beliefs

In this orientation, teachers’ perceptions and beliefs are recognized and cherished/incorporated

It is based on down-top

Teachers were not required or encouraged to master specific skills, but learn them progressively.

Learning to teach was a transformative process and not acquisition of new knowledge.

This orientation allocated themed experiences for student teachers to discover their new teaching style and gain new knowledge of learners

Teacher’s role is a facilitator who creates coordination that supports students’ learning

The curriculum reflected pupils’ needs and their interests therefore it is down top.

In summary,

In this orientation, teachers’ education is viewed as:

a.       A form of adult learning / development

b.      As a process of becoming someone rather than a process of educating someone (because, teachers’ interests are incorporated)

c.       As a process where someone learn continuously

2.    Inquiry oriented orientation

This orientation values teacher trainee as active participant in the teacher education

In this way, student teachers are engaged/involve in the variety of learning activities including becoming critical consumers of knowledge

The orientation prepares someone who is a teacher

Features of teacher education according to this          orientation

        i.            Based on notion of social construction: economy, political, educational and cultural phenomena are social constructions created by human being. Therefore, even teacher education programs are social constructed which can be constructed, deconstructed and reconstructed

      ii.            Key elements of enquiry: in the process of enquiry, there are two elements of thinking process

1.      Basic or micro thinking process: small thinking process that combine together to bringing about complex or macro thinking process. E.g. what is your name or gender?

2.      Complex or macro thinking process include the following:

                                            i.            Critical thinking

                                          ii.            Decision making

                                        iii.            Reflective thinking

                                        iv.            Objectivity

                                          v.            Creative thinking

                                        vi.            Meta cognition

                                      vii.            Epistemic cognition

                                    viii.            Problem solving

It demands high order thinking. E.g. why are you here?

    iii.            Based on collaboration. Enquiry oriented orientation is more advanced on:

a.       Collaboration between tutors and teacher trainees

b.      Valuing, caring, being just, fair and sympathetic

c.       More advanced on discouraging on individuality

    iv.            Based on quantitative and qualitative research approaches: teacher education should combine or should use both approaches in order to improve T/L processes.

      v.            Based on frequent use of open ended or unstructured challenging questions (like essay questions)

    vi.            Basing on teaching practices or field experiences

Attitudes or dispositions of inquiry

        i.            Skepticism-is an attitude of doubting about an issue

      ii.            Curiosity-is an attitude of wanting  to know better

    iii.            Respect (for reasoning)- an attitude of making rational investigation about an issue

    iv.            Objectivity-6

      v.            Willingness to suspend judgment if truth is yet to be revealed about an issue

    vi.            Tolerance for ambiguity-this is an attitude looking for more evidences about an issue

  vii.            Open mindedness-an attitude of looking an issue at both sides which are positively or negatively

Indicators of inquiry in classroom

          i.            It assumes everything is problematic. Learners are given opportunities to find out answers.

        ii.            It has open, thoughtful and democratic dialogue/conservation

      iii.            There is always cognition, support and promotion of new ideas

      iv.            There is collaborative planning for inquiry activities between the teacher and student. Determining what to learn, how to learn and where to learn is determined by both teachers and students.

        v.            There is active participation of students, teachers in teaching and solving structured challenging questions

      vi.            Teacher education educators are encouraged to do research on teaching and learning process

3.    Technological orientation

This orientation focuses attention on knowledge derived from scientific study of teaching

Primary goal of this orientation, to prepare teachers who can apply knowledge to the task of the teacher.

Learning to teach means acquiring and using research based principles.

The practices and competences are measured in performance terms, (performances assessment)

Performance assessment: is an assessment in which learners perform a certain task or demonstrate certain tasks.

Good teaching in this orientation comes from the accumulation and application of scientific knowledge.

Teaching is regarded as a rule governed and instrument practices.

Rule governed-means scientific methods. Instrumental practices

Module 5: Pedagogical strategies in teacher education

ACTION RESEARCH

Research: systematic procedures of dealing with problems or systematic procedures of investigating of problems or systematic journey reaching to a truth.

A: Action research

Action research is a form of self-reflective enquiry undertaken by participants in social situations in order to improve the rationality and justice of (a) their own social or educational practices, (b) their undertaking of these practices, and (c) the situations in which the practices are carried out. (Carr and Kemmis 1986).

Action research is a form of research in which practitioners reflect systematically on their practice, implementing informed action to bring about improvement in practice.

Generally, Action research is a research in which participants examine their own educational practice carefully and systematically using technique of research

Action research is a disciplined inquiry done by a teacher with the intent that the research will inform and change his or her practices in school or classroom context in the future time.

Action research is based on the following assumptions:

·                     Teachers and other school members work best on problems they have been identified by themselves

·                     Teachers and other organizational members become more effective when encouraged to examine and assess their own work.

·                     Teacher and other organizational members help each other by working collaboratively and cooperatively

·                     Working with colleagues helps teachers and heads of institutions in their professional development

Characteristics of action research

·         It is cyclical

·         It requires separate but mutually dependent steps

·         It is participative (both the researcher and the subject are active participants in the research process)

·         It generates data that is generally of a qualitative nature

·         It is a reflective process

NB: although, there are many types of research that may be undertaken, action research particularly refer to discipline inquiry done by the teacher with an intent that the research will inform and change his/her practice in school or classroom context in the future time

What is Not Action Research?

Action research is not what usually comes to mind when we hear the word “research”

·         Action research is not a library project where we learn a lot of things about the subject of interests but need to go to the fields.

·         It is not a problem solving in the sense of trying to find out what is wrong, but rather a quest for knowledge about how to improve

·         It is not about doing research on or about people or finding all available information on a topic looking for the correct answers. It involves people working together to improve their skills, techniques and strategies.

·         It is not about learning about why we can do certain things rather than how we can do something better. Or, it is about how can improve T/L strategies so that students can improve their learning.

Types of action research

1.      Single or individual teacher action research

2.      Group or collaborative action research

3.      School and district action research

Single or individual teacher action research

Individual teacher action research usually focuses on single issue in the classroom. The teacher may be seeking for solutions to problems of classroom management, instructional strategies, questioning techniques, student motivation, use of materials or student learning.

Teachers may have support of their supervisor or head of school/colleges, an instructor for a course /subject they are taking or parents. The problem is one that the teacher believes is evident in his/her classroom and one that can be addressed on an individual basis. The research may be such that the teacher collects data or may involve looking at student participation

Drawbacks or weaknesses of individual action research

·         It may not be shared with others unless the teacher chooses to present findings at a department or school meeting, make a formal presentation at a conference, or submit written material to lists of journal or news letter

·         It is possible for several teachers to be working concurrently on the same problem with no knowledge of the work of others

    I.            Group or collaborative action research

Collaborative research action may include as few as two teachers or group of several teachers and others interested in addressing a classroom or department issue. This issue may involve one classroom or a common problem shared by many classrooms. These teachers may be supported by individuals outside of school, such as a university or community partner.

II.            School and district action research

School-wide research focuses on issues common to all. For example, a school may have a concern about the lack of parental involvement in activities, and is looking for a way to reach more parents to involve them in meaningful ways. Or, the school may be looking to address its organizational and decision-making structures. Teams of staff from the school work together to narrow the question, gather and analyze the data, and decide on a plan of action. An example of action research for a school could be to examine their state test scores to identify areas that need improvement, and then determine a plan of action to improve student performance. Team work and individual contributions to the whole are very important, and it may be that problem points arise as the team strives to develop a process and make commitments to each other.

When these obstacles are overcome, there will be a sense of ownership and accomplishment in the results that come from this school-wide effort.

District-wide research is far more complex and utilizes more resources, but the rewards can be great. Issues can be organizational, community-based, performance-based, or processes for decision-making at district level. A district may choose to address a problem common to several schools or one of organizational management. Downsides are the documentation requirements (communication) to keep everyone in the loop, and the ability to keep the process in motion. Collecting data from all participants needs a commitment from staff to do their fair share and to meet agreed-upon deadlines for assignments. On the positive side, real school reform and change can take hold based on a common understanding through inquiry. The involvement of multiple constituent groups can lend energy to the process and create an environment of genuine stakeholders.

Figure:  Types of action research

Benefits of Action Research

Action research can be a worthwhile pursuit for educators for a number of reasons. Foremost among these is simply the desire to know more. Good teachers are, after all, themselves students, and often look for ways to expand upon their existing knowledge.

·         Focus on school issue, problem, or area of collective interest: Research done with the teacher’s students, in a setting with which the teacher is familiar helps to confer relevance and validity to a disciplined study. Often, academic research is seen as disconnected from the daily lives of educators. While this might not always be true, it can be very helpful for teachers to pick up threads suggested in academic circles, and weave them in to their own classroom. It is also comforting for parents, or education administrators outside of the school, to know that a teacher is not just blindly following what the latest study seems to suggest, but is transforming the knowledge into something meaningful.

·        Form a teacher professional development: Research and reflection allow teachers to grow and gain confidence in their work. Action research projects influence thinking skills, sense of efficacy, willingness to share and communicate, and attitudes toward the process of change. Through action research, teachers learn about themselves, their students, their colleagues, and can determine ways to continually improve.

·        Collegial interactions: Isolation is one of the downsides of teaching. Teachers are often the sole adult in a room of children, and have little or no time scheduled for professional conversations with others. Action research in pairs or by teams of teachers allows time to talk with others about teaching and teaching strategies. By working on these teams, teachers must describe their own teaching styles and strategies and share their thoughts with others. As a team they examine various instructional strategies, learning activities, and curricularmaterials used in the classroom. Through these discussions with colleagues they develop stronger relationships. As the practice of action research becomes part of the school culture, we see increased sharing and collaboration across departments, disciplines, grade levels, and schools.

·        Potential to impact school change: As teachers get into action research, they are more apt to look at questions that address school and district concerns rather than questions that affect the individual teacher. This process creates new patterns of collegiality, communication, and sharing. Contributions to the body of knowledge about teaching and learning may also result. Development of priorities for school-wide planning and assessment efforts arise from inquiry with potential to motivate change for improvement’s sake.

·        Reflect on own practice: Opportunities for teachers to evaluate themselves in schools are often few, and usually happen only in an informal manner. Action research can serve as a chance to really take a look at one’s own teaching in a structured manner. While the focus of action research is usually the students, educators can also investigate what effect their teaching is having on their students, how they could work better with other teachers, or ways of changing the whole school for the better. Conversations can take on a different focus from attempting to “fix” to arrive at understanding.

·        Improved communications: Team work within the school or district brings individuals together for a shared purpose. Educators involved inaction research become more flexible in their thinking and more open to new ideas (Pine, 1981). Studies by Little(1981) suggest positive changes in patterns of collegiality, communication, and networking.

B: INQUIRY APPROACH (PROBLEM SOLVING APPROACH)

In this approach to teaching, the students’ inquire into the problems with the view of finding answers or reasons why the problem exists. Enquiry goes further than discovery although a student must use all of his/her discovery capabilities and many more of this approach. Inquiry teaching can be traced back to the work of John Dewey. He maintained that, the learner should develop the intellectual tact and sensitivity to solve problems by inquiring constantly in the classroom (Dewey, 1993). Answers should be scientific. Students must use all discovery capabilities

Any inquiry oriented teaching strategies must provide an opportunity to learners to identify and clarify a purpose for inquiry, formulate hypothesis by collecting data, draw conclusions, apply the conclusion in a new situation to new data, and develop meaningful generalizations or principle. Purpose of inquiry to formulate hypothesis by collecting data, draw conclusion and apply conclusion to a new situation to new data. Finally develop meaningful generalizations or principle

Note:  Using inquiry in classroom does not mean leading learners towards conclusions already clear to both teachers and students. What is important even central, to inquiry is that students use accepted methods in collecting data so that they gain some insight into the situation or problem actually exists in their own classroom, laboratory or environment.

Important inquiry

Students use accepted methods in collecting data so that they gain insight into situation or problem that actually exists in classroom, laboratory and any other situation

Three main types of inquiry

1.      Guided inquiry

2.      Free inquiry

3.      Modified free inquiry

1.    Guided inquiry

Occurs when a problem is posed by a teacher and student tasks are well structured. Then, in order to assist the students, the teacher might break down the problem into simpler questions to be answered and may even give advice about steps which the students take to answer these questions. In any event, the students must come to an understanding of and a solution to the problem at the end of the time allowed for inquiry

Task/lesson should be well structured by the teacher, a problem is proposed by the teacher.

The amount of guidance will depend on level of students, problem and teacher

Teacher should advice students/learners to follow scientific procedures on talking certain problems

2.    Free inquiry

This occurs when students themselves formulate problems to be solved, diverse or design methods and techniques to solve the problems, carry out investigations and come to conclusion.

Free inquiry is suited more intellectually and gifted students with minimum amount of guidance from the teacher. Have a very little teacher guide. It suits gifted and talented students.

A class of large number of students is difficult to be implemented. The amount of guidance given in any situation will depend on the grade level of the students, the problem and the teacher. It is doubtful to a large class.

3.    Modified free inquiry

This falls between guide inquiry and free inquiry. A teacher provides a problem and a student encouraged to solve those problems on their own or in their groups.

A teacher acts as a resource person giving only enough assistance so that they do not become frustrated with what appears to be a lack of progress.

Note; without telling the students what steps to take, the teacher rather asks appropriate questions, which are more hints than directions, to help the students move forward in the investigation.

Advantages of inquiry

1.      It tends to generate enthusiasm and interests in the students

2.      Improves remembering to students because students do things in their own way

3.      Some researchers maintain that, it enhances critical thinking and skills of scientific investigation

Disadvantages of inquiry

1.      Time consuming

2.      It may be not possible to use in all situations in monitoring problems

3.      It is more suitable for intuitive and creative learners

Critical inquiry

Is intensively and carefully using scientific procedures in solving particular problems

C: MENTORING

It is important to acknowledge that the term “mentor” is borrowed from the male guide, Mentor, in Greek mythology, and this historical context has informed traditional manifestations of mentoring.

Traditionally, mentoring is viewed as a dyadic, face-to-face, long-term relationship between a supervisory adult and a novice student that fosters the mentee’s professional, academic, or personal development (Donaldson, Ensher, & Grant-Vallone, 2000).

Mentoring is a term generally used to describe a relationship between a less experienced individual, called a mentee or protégé, and a more experienced individual known as a mentor.

Mentoring is a common phenomenon which can be seen in several disciplines. Eg. Doctors, lawyers, engineers, etc.

Mentoring process is required in any profession. A mentor is the experienced individual who assists mentee or others to develop professionally. Mentoring is a continuous process.

A mentor I any individual who provide a less experienced person with support, reinforcement.

Qualities of a good mentor

i.            A friend not a social work (good relationship between a mentor and a mentee)

ii.            Should coach, not act as parents. i.esuppose to coach

iii.            A motivator (person who give encouragement, wherever there are changes

iv.            A companion and a bagging machine .i.e  knowledge should be shared between a mentor and mentee

v.            Role model in number of actions you are doing

vi.            Listen carefully, what the mentees say and not jump to a conclusion

vii.            Be honesty

viii.            Strive for mutual respect  

Attributes to consider when choosing a mentor

·         How interested is your potential mentor in developing his/her mentoring skills?

·         How much time does your potential mentor have available? Is the person already involved in other mentoring relationships?

·         How similar is the potential mentor’s personal style to your own?

·         Does the potential mentor have similar professional or academic background to yours

·         Has your potential mentor had a career path (or even life path) from which you would like to learn?

·         How well does he/she know you, your goals, and aspirations?  

·         What has his/her path to career growth and success been?

·         Is he/she in the right career field to help you?

·         How open can you truly be with him/her?

·         Will he/she be open to your ideas and action plan?

·         Will he/she try to mold you in his/her image? 

Mentee

Characteristics of mentee:

i.            Willingness to learn

ii.            Willingness and ability to self evaluate

iii.            Commitment and building trust

iv.            Listening actively

v.            Asking constructive questions

vi.            Should have respect

vii.            Self confidence

Mentoring styles

Many styles of mentoring depend on the type of organization and individuals involved:

1.      CASUAL MENTORING

Casual mentoring is what some individuals are referring to when they give public recognition to a mentor who has served as a role model or example. The mentor may not be aware that the protégé is using their behaviors as an example to follow. Everyone engages in this type of mentoring, but it has no formal structure or defined objectives – it involves simply learning from the good habits and behaviors demonstrated by others. This is not to suggest that casual mentoring is without value since much can be learned from others even in passing interactions.

This occurs when you give a public recognition to mentor who save as a role model or examples.

The mentor may not be aware that the mentee using his/her behaviors. Every one engage in this mentoring everyday but there is no formal structure or defined objectives. Simply learning good behaviors as demonstrated by others.

2.      INFORMAL MENTORING

Informal mentoring relationships are unplanned relationships. These mentoring relationships grow out of a chance connection between two people and are further built into a relationship in which there is transference of skills and knowledge. There is no contract or list of goals. The relationship may move from professional to personal and may last a lifetime. These mentoring relationships are unquestionably valuable, but ‘just happen’ as opposed to being actively developed.

Informal mentoring can be enhanced if the participants in the relationship take the time to have “formal” discussions and establish specific goals for the transference of certain skills and knowledge within set time periods.

Are unplanned relationship, these relationship grow out of chance connection of two people and further build into relationship in which there is transfer of knowledge and skills

Two people 1. More experienced 2. Less experienced

Two people meet and build the mentoring process and everyone learning from one another

This type of mentoring no structure

3.      NON-FACILITATED MENTORING
Non-facilitated mentoring relationships are those with structure, such as a mentoring contract, but they have no coordinated assignment of mentor-protégé pairs. The individuals make a mentoring connection without external help or direction. The individuals will have supporting material such as written guidelines or seminars and will be cognizant of their individual and paired expectations. They will undertake a mentoring contract and will consult their respective employers if necessary. They may have access to resource persons for help. Non-facilitated mentoring may include multiple or group mentoring and e-mentoring as described below.

4.      GROUP MENTORING

This is relatively new idea, or renewed idea, as it was a practice hundreds of years ago under various names. Group mentoring occurs when a number of mentors serve together as a resource for a defined group of protégés with similar expectations. The mentors bring a variety of skills to protégés and share responsibility for each protégé’s growth. The group may meet at regular intervals and unlike a one-on-one pairing, if one or two mentors are unavailable, the protégés will still have a contact person. The protégé group also benefits from the varying backgrounds and skill sets of their peers and may not need the mentors’ presence at each meeting. All involved benefit from the network of colleagues.

Occur when number of mentors serves together as a source of knowledge and skills for defined group of mentee. Mentees have similar goals and objectives (expectations)

5.      MULTIPLE MENTORING

A protégé may wish to consider having a number of mentors, each of whom offers different skills and experiences. Because the relationship must benefit both parties, the protégé should not use the mentors only as skill improvement stations, but the protégé should also try to offer in return some elements of their knowledge or experience that might be of benefit to the mentor. It is up to the protégé to decide who will make a good mentor and approach that individual with a plan.

This occurs when there is group of mentors each of them offers different skills and experiences to a mentee

This relationship benefits both parts mentee and mentor, such mentees should try to offer and return some of the skills and experiences to the mentor

6.      FACILITAING MENTORING

Facilitated mentoring is a structured program that involves a coordinator who assigns mentoring pairs based on character, skills, need and other criteria. The APEGA Mentoring Pilot Project falls in this category. Some other large corporations have facilitated mentoring programs as part of their company orientation practices, or as succession management strategies. The matching process is time-consuming and requires considerable human and capital resources. Facilitated mentoring also helps design contracts, creates reasonable lists of goals and tracks the mentoring pairs to see if the relationship is working and if not, steps in to help facilitate the relationship. Although this may be the best kind of mentoring program, the cost is often prohibitive.

Is the structured programmed that involve a coordinator who acts mentoring pairs based on character, skills, relationships and needs, etc

7.     E-Mentoring

E-Mentoring can be successful if those matched in the relationship are equally adept at using computers. A good deal of trust is required because comments made in writing can be much more career limiting than a comment made in casual conversation. Because of this fact, mentors and protégés must give serious consideration to limiting topics. Written comments about difficulties experienced with one’s boss or someone else in the organization would have to be avoided on-line, thus limiting the value of the relationship. Those using e-mail for personal correspondence should seriously consider using passwords on confidential documents. Using e-mail for the everyday organization such as setting up a private meeting for discussions of sensitive subjects can overcome the problem. E-mentoring is becoming more and more popular because it helps to overcome some of the problems caused by full schedules and jobs that require travel

Benefits/Importance of mentoring

1.      Helps transfer and sharing of skills and knowledge from the mentor to mentee in an organization or institution

2.      Helps to empowering young professionals with skills which traditionally obtained through trial and error

MENTORING MODELS

1.      CASCADE MODEL (one to one model)

2.      Group model mentoring

TASK 1

1.      Read different types of mentoring models such as cascade model, etc

2.      Explain the meaning of :

A.    Protégé

B.     Internship

C.     Teaching practice

D.    Mentor

E.     E-mentoring

TEACHER EDUCATION/TRAINING

Teacher education refers to the policies and procedures designed to equip prospective teachers with the knowledge, attitudes, behaviors and skills they require to perform their tasks effectively in the classroom, school and wider community.

There is a longstanding and ongoing debate about the most appropriate term to describe these activities between teacher education and training

Teacher training refers to activities that involve training staff to undertake relatively routines tasks (monotonous tasks). This term seems to be losing its ground/ popularity in teaching profession

Teacher education is broader than teacher training and it refers to preparation of staff for a professional role as a reflective practitioners.

Teacher education programme is divided into two main categories namely:

1.      Initial teacher education or pre-service education/training:

Are teacher programme before entering teaching profession as fully responsible teacher. E.g. in Tanzania, grade “A” 2 years in college, diploma 2 years and degree 3 years

2.      In-service education/training (continuing professional development)

It is the teacher development or professional development programme of teachers who are already in the teaching profession. E.g. workshop and seminar, upgrading from grade B to A

Note: in Tanzania, teacher education curriculum is viewed as having two components namely;

1.     Academic component/subject specialization

The focus is on providing the teacher with sufficient academic/subject knowledge in order to teach the learners/student-teacher in his or her subject of specialization. E.g. in diploma, a teacher may take chemistry & biology, History & Kiswahili, Geography and mathematics

Degree (either focus on one subject or two teaching subjects)

2.      Methodology/ professional component

The focus is on developing to student-teacher knowledge and skills of teaching and learning. The emphasis is on teaching methods, techniques, strategies and classroom management and interaction.